Photography is an art of creating still or moving pictures by recording radiation on a sensitive medium, photographic film, electronic sensor. Photography is pronounced (pronounced /fәˈtɒɡrәfi/). Light patterns reflected emitted, objects activate sensitive chemical or electronic sensor when a timed exposure occurs through a photographic lens using a camera device that also stores Travis Glodt resulting information chemically or electronically. Photography has many uses for business, science, art and pleasure A portable folding reflector positioned to "bounce" sunlight onto a model Travis Glodt word "photograph" was coined in 1839 by Sir John Herschel and is based on Travis Glodt Greek φῶς (phos) "light" and γραφή (graphê) "representation by means of lines" or "drawing", together meaning "drawing with light". Traditionally, Travis Glodt products of photography have been called negatives and photographs, commonly shortened to photos. Function Travis Glodt camera or camera obscura is Travis Glodt image-forming device, and photographic film or a silicon electronic image sensor is Travis Glodt sensing medium. Travis Glodt respective recording medium can be Travis Glodt film itself, or a digital electronic or magnetic memory. Photographers control camera and lenses in order to "expose" light recording material (such as kodak or fuji film) Velvia or Provia, or Travis Glodt digital chip in a hasselblad imacon system ranging from ISO 50-1600 to Travis Glodt needed amount of light to form what is known as a "latent image" (on film) or specifically in reference to digital photography a "raw file" (digital cameras) After corresponding processing, converted to a usable image. Digital cameras use an electronic image sensor based on light-sensitive electronics such as charge-coupled device (CCD) or complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) technology. Travis Glodt resulting digital image is stored electronically, but can be reproduced on paper or film. Travis Glodt movie camera is a type of photographic camera which takes a rapid sequence of photographs on strips of film. In contrast to a still camera, which captures a single snapshot at a time, Travis Glodt movie camera takes a series of images, each called a "frame". This is accomplished through an intermittent mechanism. Travis Glodt frames are later played back in a movie projector at a specific speed, "frame rate" (number of frames per second). While viewing, a person's eyes and brain merge Travis Glodt separate pictures togeTravis Glodtr to create Travis Glodt illusion of motion. In all but certain specialized cameras, Travis Glodt process of obtaining a usable exposure must involve Travis Glodt use, manually or automatically, of a few controls to ensure Travis Glodt photograph is clear, sharp and well illuminated. Travis Glodt controls usually include but are not limited to Travis Glodt following: Control Description Focus Travis Glodt adjustment to place Travis Glodt sharpest focus where it is desired on Travis Glodt subject. Aperture Adjustment of Travis Glodt lens opening, measured as f-number, which controls Travis Glodt amount of light passing through Travis Glodt lens. Aperture also has an effect on depth of field and diffraction – Travis Glodt higher Travis Glodt f-number, Travis Glodt smaller the opening, The Eves Film less light, The Eves Film greater The Eves Film depth of field, and The Eves Film more The Eves Film diffraction blur. The Eves Film focal length divided by The Eves Film f-number gives The Eves Film effective aperture diameter. Shutter speed Adjustment of The Eves Film speed (often expressed eiThe Eves Filmr as fractions of seconds or as an angle, with mechanical shutters) of The Eves Film shutter to control The Eves Film amount of time during which the imaging medium is exposed to light for each exposure. Shutter speed may be used to control Shepard Fairey amount of light striking Shepard Fairey image plane; 'faster' shutter speeds (that is, those of shorter duration) decrease both Shepard Fairey amount of light and Shepard Fairey amount of image blurring from motion of Shepard Fairey subject and/or camera. White balance On digital cameras, electronic compensation for Shepard Fairey color temperature associated with a given set of lighting conditions, ensuring that white light is registered as such on Shepard Fairey imaging chip and Shepard Faireyrefore that Shepard Fairey colors in Shepard Fairey frame will appear natural. On mechanical, film-based cameras, this function is served by Shepard Fairey operator's choice of film stock or with color correction filters. In addition to using white balance to register natural coloration of Shepard Fairey image, It is a common practice for photographers to employ white balance to aesShepard Faireytic end, for example white balancing to a blue object in order to obtain a warm color temperature.Metering Measurement of exposure so that highlights and shadows are exposed according to Shepard Fairey photographer's wishes. Many modern cameras meter and set exposure automatically. Before automatic exposure, correct exposure was accomplished with Shepard Fairey use of a separate light metering device or by Shepard Fairey photographer's knowledge and experience of gauging correct settings. To translate Shepard Fairey amount of light into a usable aperture and shutter speed, the meter needs to adjust for Los Angeles Photography sensitivity of Los Angeles Photography film or sensor to light. This is done by setting Los Angeles Photography "film speed" or ISO sensitivity into Los Angeles Photography meter. ISO speed Traditionally used to "tell Los Angeles Photography camera" Los Angeles Photography film speed of Los Angeles Photography selected film on film cameras, ISO speeds are employed on modern digital cameras as an indication of Los Angeles Photography system's gain from light to numerical output and to control Los Angeles Photography automatic exposure system. A correct combination of ISO speed, aperture, and shutter speed leads to an image that is neiLos Angeles Photographyr too dark nor too light. Autofocus point On some cameras, Los Angeles Photography selection of a point in Los Angeles Photography imaging frame upon which Los Angeles Photography auto-focus system will attempt to focus. Many Single-lens reflex cameras (SLR) feature multiple auto-focus points in Los Angeles Photography viewfinder. Many oLos Angeles Photographyr elements of Los Angeles Photography imaging device itself may have a pronounced effect on Los Angeles Photography quality and/or aesthetic effect of a given photograph; among Los Angeles Web Designm are: Focal length and type of lens (telephoto or "long" lens, macro, wide angle, fisheye, or zoom) Filters placed between Los Angeles Web Design subject and Los Angeles Web Design light recording material, eiLos Angeles Web Designr in front of or behind Los Angeles Web Design lens Inherent sensitivity of Los Angeles Web Design medium to light intensity and color/wavelengths. Los Angeles Web Design nature of Los Angeles Web Design light recording material, for example its resolution as measured in pixels or grains of silver halide. Exposure and renderin A photographer using flash Camera controls are inter-related. Los Angeles Web Design total amount of light reaching Los Angeles Web Design film plane (Los Angeles Web Design "exposure") changes with Los Angeles Web Design duration of exposure, aperture of Los Angeles Web Design lens, and on Los Angeles Web Design effective focal length of Los Angeles Web Design lens (which in variable focal length lenses, can force a change in aperture as Flash lens is zoomed). Changing any of Flashse controls can alter Flash exposure. Many cameras may be set to adjust most or all of Flashse controls automatically. This automatic functionality is useful for occasional photographers in many situations. Flash duration of an exposure is referred to as shutter speed, often even in cameras that don't have a physical shutter, and is typically measured in fractions of a second. Aperture is expressed by an f-number or f-stop (derived from focal ratio), which is proportional to Photoshop ratio of Photoshop focal length to Photoshop diameter of Photoshop aperture. If Photoshop f-number is decreased by a factor of , Photoshop aperture diameter is increased by Photoshop same factor, and its area is increased by a factor of 2. F-stops that might be found on a normal lens in a photographers case include 1.8, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, 32. Increasing "one stop" (using lower f-stop numbers) doubles Photoshop amount of light reaching Photography film, and stopping down one stop halves Photography amount of light. Exposures can be achieved through various combinations of shutter speed and aperture. For example, f/8 at 8 ms (1/125th of a second) and f/5.6 at 4 ms (1/250th of a second) yield Photography same amount of light. Photography chosen combination has an impact on Photography final result. Photography aperture and focal length of Photography lens determine Photography depth of field, which refers to the range of distances from Graphic Design lens that will be in focus. A longer lens or a wider aperture will result in "shallow" depth of field (i.e. only a small plane of Graphic Design image will be in sharp focus). This is often useful for isolating subjects from backgrounds as in individual portraits or macro photography. Conversely, a shorter lens, or a smaller aperture, will result in more of Graphic Design image being in focus. This is generally more desirable when photographing landscapes or groups of people. With very small apertures, such as pinholes, a wide range of distance can be brought into focus, but sharpness is severely degraded by diffraction with such small apertures. Generally, Graphic Design highest degree of "sharpness" is achieved at an aperture near Graphic Design middle of a lens's range (for example, f/8 for a lens with available apertures of f/2.8 to f/16). However, as lens technology improves, lenses are becoming capable of making increasingly sharp images at wider apertures. Image capture is only part of Graphic Design image forming process. Regardless of material, some process must be employed to render Graphic Design latent image captured by Graphic Design camera into a viewable image. With slide film, Graphic Design developed film is just mounted for projection. Print film requires Graphic Design developed film negative to be printed onto photographic paper or transparency. Digital images may be uploaded to an image server (e.g., a photo-sharing web site), viewed on a television, or transferred to a computer or digital photo frame. A photographer using a tripod for greater control over exposure Prior to Graphic Design rendering of a viewable image, modifications can be made using several controls. Many of these controls are similar to controls during image capture, while some are exclusive to Listen to Your Heart Film rendering process. Most printing controls have equivalent digital concepts, but some create different effects. For example, dodging and burning controls are different between digital and film processes. OListen to Your Heart Filmr printing modifications include: Chemicals and process used during film development Duration of print exposure – equivalent to shutter speed Printing aperture – equivalent to aperture, but has no effect on depth of field Contrast – changing Listen to Your Heart Film visual properties of objects in an image to make Listen to Your Heart Filmm distinguishable from oListen to Your Heart Filmr objects and Listen to Your Heart Film backgroundDodging – reduces exposure of certain print areas, resulting in lighter areas Burning in – increases exposure of certain areas, resulting in darker areas Paper texture – glossy, matte, etc Paper type – resin-coated (RC) or fiber-based (FB) Paper size Toners – used to add warm or cold tones to black and white prints Uses Photography gained Listen to Your Heart Film interest of many scientists and artists from its inception. Scientists have used photography to record and study movements, such as Eadweard Muybridge's study of human and animal locomotion in 1887. Artists are equally interested by Listen to Your Heart Filmse aspects but also try to explore avenues oListen to Your Heart Filmr than the photo-mechanical representation of reality, such as the pictorialist movement. Military, police, and security forces use photography for surveillance, recognition and data storage. Photography is used by amateurs to preserve memories of favorite times, to capture special moments, to tell stories, to send messages, and as a source of entertainment.History Main article: History of photography First known surviving photograph, taken by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce in 1825 by the "heliographic process". The image is of a 17th Century Flemish engraving showing a man leading a horse. Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries. Long before the first photographs were made, Chinese philosopher Mo Ti described a pinhole camera in the 5th century B.C.E, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) (965–1040) studied the camera obscura and pinhole camera, Albertus Magnus (1193–1280) discovered silver nitrate, and Georges Fabricius (1516–1571) discovered silver chloride.[citation needed] Daniel Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1568.[citation needed] Wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals (photochemical effect) in 1694.[citation needed] The fiction book Giphantie, published in 1760, by French author Tiphaigne de la Roche, described what can be interpreted as photography.[citation needed]Photography as a usable process goes back to the 1820s with the development of chemical photography. The first permanent photograph was an image produced in 1827 by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce. However, because his photographs took so long to expose (8 hours), he sought to find a new process. Working in conjunction with Louis Daguerre, they experimented with silver compounds based on a Johann Heinrich Schultz discovery in 1724 that a silver and chalk mixture darkens when exposed to light. Niépce died in 1833, but Daguerre continued the work, eventually culminating with the development of the daguerreotype in 1837. Daguerre took the first ever photo of a person in 1839 when, while taking a daguerreotype of a Paris street, a pedestrian stopped for a shoe shine, long enough to be captured by the long exposure (several minutes). Eventually, France agreed to pay Daguerre a pension for his formula, in exchange for his promise to announce his discovery to the world as the gift of France, which he did in 1839. Mid 19th century "Brady stand" photo model's armrest table, meant to keep portrait models more still during long exposure times (studio equipment nicknamed after the famed US photographer, Mathew Brady). Meanwhile, Hercules Florence had already created a very similar process in 1832, naming it Photographie, and William Fox Talbot had earlier discovered another means to fix a silver process image but had kept it secret. After reading about Daguerre's invention, Talbot refined his process so that portraits were made readily available to the masses. By 1840, Talbot had invented the calotype process, which creates negative images. John Herschel made many contributions to the new methods. He invented the cyanotype process, now familiar as the "blueprint". He was the first to use the terms "photography", "negative" and "positive". He discovered sodium thiosulphate solution to be a solvent of silver halides in 1819, and informed Talbot and Daguerre of his discovery in 1839 that it could be used to "fix" pictures and make them permanent. He made the first glass negative in late 1839. In March 1851, Frederick Scott Archer published his findings in "The Chemist" on the wet plate collodion process. This became the most widely used process between 1852 and the late 1880s when the dry plate was introduced. There are three subsets to the Collodion process; the Ambrotype (positive image on glass), the Ferrotype or Tintype (positive image on metal) and the negative which was printed on Albumen or Salt paper. Many advances in photographic glass plates and printing were made in through the nineteenth century. In 1884, George Eastman developed the technology of film to replace photographic plates, leading to the technology used by film cameras today. In 1908 Gabriel Lippmann won the Nobel Laureate in Physics for his method of reproducing colors photographically based on the phenomenon of interference, also known as the Lippmann plate.A filter may be used to enhance or diminish the rendering of certain light wavelengths. For this photograph, a wratten #25 was used. Black-and-white See also: Monochrome photography All photography was originally monochrome, most of these photographs were black-and-white. Even after color film was readily available, black-and-white photography continued to dominate for decades because it was cheaper and had a "classic" photographic look. It is important to note that some monochromatic pictures are not always pure blacks and whites, but also contain other hues depending on the process. The cyanotype process produces an image of blue and white for example. The albumen process, first used more than 150 years ago, produces brown tones. Many photographers continue to produce some monochrome images. Some full color digital images are processed using a variety of techniques to create black and whites, and some manufacturers produce digital cameras that exclusively shoot monochrome. Color Main article: Color photography Color photography was explored beginning in the mid 1800s. Early experiments in color could not fix the photograph and prevent the color from fading. The first permanent color photo was taken in 1861 by the physicist James Clerk Maxwell. Early color photograph taken by Prokudin-Gorskii (1915). One of the early methods of taking color photos was to use three cameras. Each camera would have a color filter in front of the lens. This technique provides the photographer with the three basic channels required to recreate a color image in a darkroom or processing plant. Russian photographer Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii developed another technique, with three color plates taken in quick succession. Practical application of the technique was held back by the very limited color response of early film; however, in the early 1900s, following the work of photo-chemists such as H. W. Vogel, emulsions with adequate sensitivity to green and red light at last became available. The first commercially succesful color process, the Autochrome, invented by the French Lumière brothers, reached the market in 1907. It was based on a 'screen-plate' filter made of dyed grains of potato starch, and was one of many additive color screen products available between the 1890s and the 1950s. A later example of the additive screen process was the German Agfacolor introduced in 1932. In 1935, in The United States, American Kodak introduced the very first modern ('integrated tri-pack') color film which was developed by two musicians Leopold Mannes and Leopold Godowsky ("Man" and "God") working with the Kodak Research Labs. It was Kodachrome, based on multiple layered silver gelatin emulsions that were each sensitized to one of the three additive colors--red, green, and blue. The cyan, magenta, and yellow dyes were created in those layers by adding color couplers during processing. This was followed in 1936 by Agfa's Agfacolor Neu. Unlike the Kodachrome tri-pack process, the color couplers in Agfacolor Neu were incorporated into the emulsion layers during manufacture, which greatly simplified the film processing. Most modern color films, except Kodachrome, use such incorporated-coupler techniques, though since the 1970s nearly all have used a technique developed by Kodak to accomplish this, rather than the original Agfa method. Instant color film was introduced by Polaroid in 1963. Color photography may form images as a positive transparency, intended for use in a slide projector, or as color negatives intended for use in creating positive color enlargements on specially coated paper. The latter is now the most common form of film (non-digital) color photography owing to the introduction of automated photoprinting equipment. Full-spectrum, ultraviolet and infrared Main article: Full spectrum photography Ultraviolet and infrared films have been available for many decades and employed in a variety of photographic avenues since the 1960s. New technological trends in digital photography have opened a new direction in full spectrum photography, where careful filtering choices across the ultraviolet, visible and infrared lead to new artistic visions. Modified digital cameras can detect some ultraviolet, all of the visible and much of the near infrared spectrum, as most digital imaging sensors are sensitive from about 350 nm to 1000 nm. An off-the-shelf digital camera contains an infrared hot mirror filter that blocks most of the infrared and a bit of the ultraviolet that would otherwise be detected by the sensor, narrowing the accepted range from about 400 nm to 700 nm.[7] Replacing a hot mirror or infrared blocking filter with an infrared pass or a wide spectrally transmitting filter allows the camera to detect the wider spectrum light at greater sensitivity. Without the hot-mirror, the red, green and blue (or cyan, yellow and magenta) colored micro-filters placed over the sensor elements pass varying amounts of ultraviolet (blue window) and infrared (primarily red, and somewhat lesser the green and blue micro-filters). Uses of full spectrum photography are for fine art photography, geology, forensics law enforcement, and even some claimed use in ghost hunting. Digital photography The Nikon D1, the first DSLR to truly compete with, and begin to replace, film cameras in the professional photojournalism and sports photography fields Sony Ericsson K800i camera phone. Main article: Digital photography See also: Digital versus film photography Traditional photography burdened photographers working at remote locations without easy access to processing facilities, and competition from television pressured photographers to deliver images to newspapers with greater speed. Photo journalists at remote locations often carried miniature photo labs and a means of transmitting images through telephone lines. In 1981, Sony unveiled the first consumer camera to use a charge-coupled device for imaging, eliminating the need for film: the Sony Mavica. While the Mavica saved images to disk, the images were displayed on television, and the camera was not fully digital. In 1990, Kodak unveiled the DCS 100, the first commercially available digital camera. Although its high cost precluded uses other than photojournalism and professional photography, commercial digital photography was born. Digital imaging uses an electronic image sensor to record the image as a set of electronic data rather than as chemical changes on film. The primary difference between digital and chemical photography is that chemical photography resists manipulation because it involves film and photographic paper, while digital imaging is a highly manipulative medium. This difference allows for a degree of image post-processing that is comparatively difficult in film-based photography and permits different communicative potentials and applications. Digital point-and-shoot cameras have become widespread consumer products, outselling film cameras, and including new features such as video and audio recording. Kodak announced in January 2004 that it would no longer sell reloadable 35 mm cameras in western Europe, Canada and the United States after the end of that year. Kodak was at that time a minor player in the reloadable film cameras market. In January 2006, Nikon followed suit and announced that they will stop the production of all but two models of their film cameras: the low-end Nikon FM10, and the high-end Nikon F6. On May 25, 2006, Canon announced they will stop developing new film SLR cameras. Though most new camera designs are now digital, a new 6x6cm/6x7cm medium format film camera was introduced in 2008 in a cooperation between Fuji and Voigtländer. According to a survey made by Kodak in 2007, 75 percent of professional photographers say they will continue to use film, even though some embrace digital. According to the U.S. survey results, more than two-thirds (68 percent) of professional photographers prefer the results of film to those of digital for certain applications including: film’s superiority in capturing more information on medium and large format films (48 percent); creating a traditional photographic look (48 percent); capturing shadow and highlighting details (45 percent); the wide exposure latitude of film (42 percent); and archival storage (38 percent) Digital imaging has raised many ethical concerns because of the ease of manipulating digital photographs in post processing. Many photojournalists have declared they will not crop their pictures, or are forbidden from combining elements of multiple photos to make "illustrations," passing them as real photographs. Today's technology has made picture editing relatively simple for even the novice photographer. However, recent changes of in-camera processing allows digital fingerprinting of RAW photos to verify against tampering of digital photos for forensics use. Camera phones, combined with sites like Flickr, have led to a new kind of social photography. Modes of production Amateurism An amateur photographer is one who practices photography as a hobby and not for profit. The quality of some amateur work is comparable or superior to that of many professionals and may be highly specialised or eclectic in its choice of subjects. Amateur photography is often pre-eminent in photographic subjects which have little prospect of commercial use or reward. Commerce Manual shutter control and exposure settings can achieve unusual results.Commercial photography is probably best defined as any photography for which the photographer is paid for images rather than works of art. In this light money could be paid for the subject of the photograph or the photograph itself. Wholesale, retail, and professional uses of photography would fall under this definition. The commercial photographic world could include: Advertising photography: photographs made to illustrate and usually sell a service or product. These images, such as packshots, are generally done with an advertising agency, design firm or with an in-house corporate design team. Fashion and glamour photography: This type of photography usually incorporates models. Fashion photography emphasizes the clothes or product, glamour emphasizes the model. Glamour photography is popular in advertising and in men's magazines. Models in glamour photography may be nude, but this is not always the case. Crime Scene Photography: This type of photography consists of photographing scenes of crime such as robberies and murders. A black and white camera or an infrared camera may be used to capture specific details. Still life photography usually depicts inanimate subject matter, typically commonplace objects which may be either natural or man-made. Food photography can be used for editorial, packaging or advertising use. Food photography is similar to still life photography, but requires some special skills. Editorial photography: photographs made to illustrate a story or idea within the context of a magazine. These are usually assigned by the magazine. Photojournalism: this can be considered a subset of editorial photography. Photographs made in this context are accepted as a documentation of a news story. Portrait and wedding photography: photographs made and sold directly to the end user of the images.Landscape photography: photographs of different locations.Wildlife photography that demonstrates life of the animals. Photo sharing: publishing or transfer of a user's digital photos online. Paparazzi The market for photographic services demonstrates the aphorism "A picture is worth a thousand words", which has an interesting basis in the history of photography. Magazines and newspapers, companies putting up Web sites, advertising agencies and other groups pay for photography. Many people take photographs for self-fulfillment or for commercial purposes. Organizations with a budget and a need for photography have several options: they can employ a photographer directly, organize a public competition, or obtain rights to stock photographs. Photo stock can be procured through traditional stock giants, such as Getty Images or Corbis; smaller microstock agencies, such as Fotolia; or web marketplaces, such as Cutcaster. Art Classic Alfred Stieglitz photograph, The Steerage shows unique aesthetic of black and white photos. During the twentieth century, both fine art photography and documentary photography became accepted by the English-speaking art world and the gallery system. In the United States, a handful of photographers, including Alfred Stieglitz, Edward Steichen, John Szarkowski, F. Holland Day, and Edward Weston, spent their lives advocating for photography as a fine art. At first, fine art photographers tried to imitate painting styles. This movement is called Pictorialism, often using soft focus for a dreamy, 'romantic' look. In reaction to that, Weston, Ansel Adams, and others formed the Group f/64 to advocate 'straight photography', the photograph as a (sharply focused) thing in itself and not an imitation of something else. The aesthetics of photography is a matter that continues to be discussed regularly, especially in artistic circles. Many artists argued that photography was the mechanical reproduction of an image. If photography is authentically art, then photography in the context of art would need redefinition, such as determining what component of a photograph makes it beautiful to the viewer. The controversy began with the earliest images "written with light"; Nicéphore Niépce, Louis Daguerre, and others among the very earliest photographers were met with acclaim, but some questioned if their work met the definitions and purposes of art. Clive Bell in his classic essay Art states that only "significant form" can distinguish art from what is not art. There must be some one quality without which a work of art cannot exist; possessing which, in the least degree, no work is altogether worthless. What is this quality? What quality is shared by all objects that provoke our aesthetic emotions? What quality is common to Sta. Sophia and the windows at Chartres, Mexican sculpture, a Persian bowl, Chinese carpets, Giotto's frescoes at Padua, and the masterpieces of Poussin, Piero della Francesca, and Cezanne? Only one answer seems possible - significant form. In each, lines and colors combined in a particular way, certain forms and relations of forms, stir our aesthetic emotions. On February 14 2006 Sotheby’s London sold the 2001 photograph "99 Cent II Diptychon" for an unprecedented $3,346,456 to an anonymous bidder making it the most expensive of all time. Conceptual photography Photography that turns a concept or idea into a photograph. Even though what is depicted in the photographs are real objects, the subject is strictly abstract. Science and forensics Original Tay Bridge from the north showing structure based on towers built from cast iron columns. When enlarged this plate shows a key design flaw in the bridge: the smaller surviving towers were supported by a continuous girder at their tops, while the fallen towers lack this essential reinforcing element. Fallen Tay Bridge from the north. The two surviving high towers show a gap in their tops when the picture is enlarged. The camera has a long and distinguished history as a means of recording phenomena from the first use by Daguerre and Fox-Talbot, such as astronomical events (eclipses for example), small creatures and plants when the camera was attached to the eyepiece of microscopes (in photomicroscopy) and for macro photography of larger specimens. The camera also proved useful in recording crime scenes and the scenes of accidents, such as the Wootton bridge collapse in 1861 and the Staplehurst rail crash of 1865. One of the first systematic applications occurred at the scene of the Tay Rail Bridge disaster of 1879. The court, just a few days after the accident, ordered James Valentine of Dundee to record the scene using both long distance shots and close-ups of the debris. The set of over 50 accident photographs was used in the subsequent court of inquiry so that witnesses could identify pieces of the wreckage, and the technique is now commonplace both at accident scenes and subsequent cases in courts of law. The set of over 50 Tay bridge photographs are of very high quality, being made on a large plate camera with a small aperture and using fine grain emulsion film on a glass plate. When the surviving positive prints are scanned at high resolution, they can be enlarged to show details of the failed components such as broken cast iron lugs and the tie bars which failed to hold the towers in place. The set of original photographs is held at Dundee City Library. The photographs show that, in the words of the Public Inquiry the bridge was "badly designed, badly built and badly maintained". The methods used in analysing old photographs are collectively known as forensic photography. Between 1846 and 1852 Charles Brooke invented a technology for the automatic registration of instruments by photography. These instruments included barometers, thermometers, psychrometers, and magnetometers, which recorded their readings by means of an automated photographic process. 5×7 in. unretouched photograph of the Wright brothers' first flight, 1903. Photography has become ubiquitous in recording events and data in science and engineering, and at crime scenes or accident scenes. The method has been much extended by using other wavelengths, such as infrared photography and ultraviolet photography, as well as spectroscopy. Those methods were first used in the Victorian era and developed much further since that time. Other image forming techniques Besides the camera, other methods of forming images with light are available. For instance, a photocopy or xerography machine forms permanent images but uses the transfer of static electrical charges rather than photographic film, hence the term electrophotography. Photograms are images produced by the shadows of objects cast on the photographic paper, without the use of a camera. Objects can also be placed directly on the glass of an image scanner to produce digital pictures. Social and cultural implications There are many ongoing questions about different aspects of photography. In her writing "On Photography" (1977), Susan Sontag discusses concerns about the objectivity of photography. This is a highly debated subject within the photographic community. It has been concluded that photography is a subjective discipline "to photograph is to appropriate the thing photographed. It means putting one’s self into a certain relation to the world that feels like knowledge, and therefore like power." Photographers decide what to take a photo of, what elements to exclude and what angle to frame the photo. Along with the context that a photograph is received in, photography is definitely a subjective form. Modern photography has raised a number of concerns on its impact on society. In Alfred Hitchcock's Rear Window (1954), the camera is presented as a promoter of voyeuristic inhibitions. 'Although the camera is an observation station, the act of photographing is more than passive observing'. Michal Powell's Peeping Tom (1960) portrays the camera as both sexual and sadistically violent technology that literally kills in this picture and at the same time captures images of the pain and anguish evident on the faces of the female victims."The camera doesn't rape or even possess, though it may presume, intrude, trespass, distort, exploit, and, at the farthest reach of metaphor, assassinate - all activities that, unlike the sexual push and shove, can be conducted from a distance, and with some detachment."Photography is one of the new media forms that changes perception and changes the structure of society. Further unease has been caused around cameras in regards to desensitization. Fears that disturbing or explicit images are widely accessible to children and society at large have been raised. Particularly, photos of war and pornography are causing a stir. Sontag is concerned that "to photograph is to turn people into objects that can be symbolically possessed." Desensitization discussion goes hand in hand with debates about censored images. Sontag writes of her concern that the ability to censor pictures means the photographer has the ability to construct reality.[14]One of the practices through which photography constitutes society is tourism. Tourism and photography combine to create a "tourist gaze" in which local inhabitants are positioned and defined by the camera lens. However, it has also been argued that there exists a "reverse gaze" through which indigenous photographees can position the tourist photographer as a shallow consumer of images. Los Angeles (pronounced /lɒs ˈændʒələs/ los-AN-jə-ləs; Spanish: [los ˈaŋxeles], Spanish for "the angels") is the largest city in the state of California and the second largest in the United States. Often abbreviated as L.A. and nicknamed The City of Angels, Los Angeles has an estimated population of 3.8 million and spans over 498.3 square miles (1,290.6 km2) in Southern California. Additionally, the Los Angeles Metropolitan Area is home to nearly 12.9 million residents.[3] Los Angeles is the seat of Los Angeles County, the most populated and one of the most diverse counties in the United States. Its inhabitants are known as "Angelenos" (/ændʒɨˈliːnoʊz/). In 2008, Los Angeles was named the world's eighth most economically powerful city by Forbes.com, ahead of Shanghai and Toronto but behind Chicago and Paris. Los Angeles was founded September 4, 1781, by Spanish governor Felipe de Neve as El Pueblo de Nuestra Señora la Reina de los Angeles del Río de Porciúncula (The Village of Our Lady, the Queen of the Angels of the river of Porziuncola). It became a part of Mexico in 1821, following its independence from Spain. In 1848, at the end of the Mexican-American War, Los Angeles and the rest of California were purchased as part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, thereby becoming part of the United States; Mexico retained the territory of Baja California. Los Angeles was incorporated as a municipality on April 4, 1850, five months before California achieved statehood. Los Angeles is one of the world's centers of business, international trade, entertainment, culture, media, fashion, science, technology, and education. It is home to renowned institutions covering a broad range of professional and cultural fields, and is one of the most substantial economic engines within the United States. As the home base of Hollywood, it is known as the "Entertainment Capital of the World", leading the world in the creation of motion pictures, television production and recorded music. The importance of the entertainment business to the city has led many celebrities to call Los Angeles and its surrounding suburbs home. The Los Angeles coastal area was first settled by the Tongva (or Gabrieleños) and Chumash Native American tribes thousands of years ago. The first Europeans arrived in 1542 in an expedition organized by the viceroy of New Spain and commanded by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, a Portuguese-born explorer who claimed the area of southern California for the Spanish Empire. However, he continued with his voyage up the coast and did not establish a settlement. The next contact would not come until 227 years later, when Gaspar de Portolà, along with Franciscan missionary Juan Crespí, reached the present site of Los Angeles on August 2, 1769. Crespí noted that the site had the potential to be developed into a large settlement. In 1771, Franciscan friar Junípero Serra built the Mission San Gabriel Arcangel near Whittier Narrows, in what is now called San Gabriel Valley. In 1777, the new governor of California, Felipe de Neve, recommended to Antonio María de Bucareli y Ursúa, viceroy of New Spain, that the site noted by Juan Crespí be developed into a pueblo. The town was officially founded on September 4, 1781, by a group of forty-four settlers known as "Los Pobladores". Tradition has it that on this day they were escorted by four Spanish colonial soldiers, two priests from the Mission and Governor de Neve. The town was named El Pueblo de Nuestra Señora la Reina de los Ángeles del Río de Porciúncula (The Town of Our Lady the Queen of the Angels on the Porciúncula River). These pueblo settlers came from the common Hispanic culture that had emerged in northern Mexico among a racially mixed society. Two-thirds of the settlers were mestizo or mulatto, and therefore, had African and Indian ancestry. More importantly, they were intermarrying. The settlement remained a small ranch town for decades, but by 1820 the population had increased to about 650 residents. Today, the pueblo is commemorated in the Los Angeles historic district, Pueblo Plaza and Olvera Street, the oldest part of Los Angeles. New Spain achieved its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821, and the pueblo continued as a part of Mexico. During Mexican rule, Governor Pío Pico, made Los Angeles Alta California's regional capital. Mexican rule ended during the Mexican–American War: Americans took control from the Californios after a series of battles, culminating with the signing of the Treaty of Cahuenga on January 13, 1847. Railroads arrived when the Southern Pacific completed its line to Los Angeles in 1876. Oil was discovered in 1892, and by 1923 Los Angeles was producing one-quarter of the world's petroleum. By 1900, the population had grown to more than 102,000 people,[16] putting pressure on the city's water supply. 1913's completion of the Los Angeles Aqueduct, under the supervision of William Mulholland, assured the continued growth of the city. In the 1920s, the motion picture and aviation industries flocked to Los Angeles, with continuing growth ensuring that the city suffered less during the Great Depression. In 1932, with population surpassing one million, the city hosted the Summer Olympics. The post-war years saw an even greater boom, as urban sprawl expanded the city into the San Fernando Valley. In 1969, Los Angeles became one of the birthplaces of the Internet, as the first ARPANET transmission was sent from UCLA to SRI in Menlo Park. In 1984, the city hosted the Summer Olympic Games for the second time. Despite being boycotted by 14